Harry A Quigley, M.D.

• A. Edward Maumenee Professor of Ophthalmology
• Professor of Ophthalmology

https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/profiles/results/directory/profile/0000297/harry-quigley

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Treatment and Prognosis Adenomas are benign lesions and are cured by cholecystectomy. Surgery should also be considered for sufferers with out signs if the polyps are sessile, a quantity of, or larger than 1 cm. Both are inclined to occur in the setting of chronic cholecystitis,347 as nicely as in association with dysplasia or adenocarcinoma. Focal gastric metaplasia is seen in around 50% of gallbladders with persistent inflammation. It could appear on the surface as gastric foveolar-type cells or form pyloric gland-like constructions. The modifications appear to begin on the base of the crypt as branches or buds; these glands assume a lobular arrangement, mimicking the architecture of the gastric antrum or pylorus. Intestinal metaplasia is seen in 10% to 30% of persistent cholecystitis instances and normally consists of foci of goblet cells, but columnar cells with a brush border and Paneth cells can also be seen. These modifications then progress downward and could be seen in the Rokitansky-Aschoff sinuses. Endocrine cells, if present, are quite variable in number and randomly distributed. Squamous metaplasia is rare, tends to be associated with gallstones, and may be related to dysplasia or squamous cell carcinoma. Benign mesenchymal tumors such as lipoma, leiomyoma, paraganglioma, hemangioma, and lymphangioma have been reported within the gallbladder. Rarely, paraganglioma can occur within the gallbladder and behaves in a benign style. It is at present not attainable to predict which gallbladders with persistent disease usually have a tendency to comprise preinvasive lesions. Close monitoring of such lesions significantly improves the outcome, but, if microinvasion is seen, metastases and demise may happen. It has been beneficial that greater than three longitudinal sections ought to be taken for routine examination. Pseudostratification or multilayering is often seen, and the adjustments can appear very related to adenomatous change within the colon. Giant cells, loss of polarity, and atypical mitotic figures are different options which might be current. This is a disease of old age, with a peak incidence occurring at 70 to 79 years of age and a female-to-male predominance of 3: 1. The incidence is larger in Native Americans, Mexicans, Mexican Americans, Japanese, and Central and Eastern Europeans, compared with Africans and African Americans. Pain is probably the most common presenting symptom; jaundice, proper upper-quadrant mass, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and weight loss can additionally be current. Gallstones are discovered in additional than 80% of sufferers with gallbladder carcinoma,357-359 and a real causal relationship is additional instructed by the truth that gallbladder carcinoma and stones are both extra widespread in girls and Native Americans. Chronic irritation of the biliary mucosa by stones is considered the promoter of neoplastic transformation. Diffuse calcification, or porcelain gallbladder, is another condition that has a high association with adenocarcinoma (10%-25%). In addition, some evidence exists that continual Salmonella typhi an infection of the gallbladder361 and exposure to chemical compounds used within the rubber, automotive, textile, and metal-fabricating industries impose an increased threat for carcinoma. Adenocarcinomas usually end in localized thickening of the gallbladder wall, causing a bulge into the lumen. Less incessantly, diffuse thickening or an intraluminal papillary development could also be seen. Small infiltrative tumors could also be ignored or mistaken for chronic cholecystitis. Approximately 90% of carcinomas come up in the physique or fundus of the gallbladder; the remainder occur within the neck. Rarely, carcinoma may come up in the remnants of the gallbladder after partial cholescystectomy. The most common neoplasm is adenocarcinoma, with the next recognized histologic subtypes: biliary, intestinal, gastric foveolar, mucinous, signet ring cell, clear cell, cribriform, adenosquamous, squamous, hepatoid, carcinosarcoma, and undifferentiated. Biliary kind is the most common, which may be well (>95% glands), reasonably (50%-95% glands), or poorly differentiated (<50% glands).

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Hodgkin lymphoma usually involves the liver as nodular plenty inside the portal zones. Reed-Sternberg cells should be identified to make a definitive prognosis, however the presence of an infiltrate composed of lymphocytes, admixed with plasma cells, eosinophils, and a few atypical cells can be consistent with Hodgkin lymphoma if the analysis was already nicely established at another web site. Rarely, intrahepatic cholestasis, sometimes associated with a paucity of bile ducts, could be seen. Some lymphomas might show sinusoidal infiltration by the tumor cells similar to that seen in leukemia. Contiguous lymph node involvement and extrahepatic spread may be present, however liver involvement is the dominant clinical presentation. Surgery is an choice for resectable tumors, although chemotherapy adopted by radiation is at present the treatment of choice in early-stage disease. Three histologic patterns of liver involvement in hematopoietic neoplasms are seen: portal infiltrates, sinusoidal lymphocytosis, and mass forming. Hodgkin lymphoma, small B-cell lymphomas, and mast cell disorders typically show portal infiltrates. A sinusoidal lymphocytosis sample is typically seen in leukemias, hepatosplenic lymphoma, and other T-cell lymphomas, in addition to benign processes similar to infectious mononucleosis. Diffuse nodular infiltration of the liver resembling cirrhosis can happen and is most frequently associated with metastatic breast carcinoma. Intrahepatic biliary unfold may be seen in metastatic colonic adenocarcinoma and might mimic cholangiocarcinoma. The ducts are uniform in size and with less intervening fibrous stroma compared with hamartomas. The lesional ducts have spherical outlines and are lined by bland cuboidal epithelium without mitotic activity. Mucinous metaplasia, 1-antitrypsin droplets, and neuroendocrine differentiation could additionally be seen. The endocrine cell clusters should not be confused with metastatic carcinoid or islet cell tumor. The designation of "adenoma" could additionally be a misnomer as it could symbolize not a real neoplasm but a localized ductular response at the website of previous injury270 or peribiliary gland hamartoma. The presence of destructive infiltration of adjoining liver parenchyma, single cell infiltration, luminal necrosis, vascular invasion, nuclear atypia, prominent nucleoli, and mitoses favor adenocarcinoma. Mucinous Cystic Neoplasm Clinical Features Mucinous cystic neoplasms, formerly often known as hepatobiliary or biliary cystadenomas, are rare lesions that happen within the liver, with a better incidence in women and with histologic counterparts in the pancreas and ovary. They could be related to the event of adenocarcinoma, which happens equally in men and women. The imply age for development of adenocarcinoma (59 years) in these lesions is higher than in sufferers with out adenocarcinoma (45 years). Mucinous cystic neoplasms are 5- to 15-cm multilocular cysts with a easy or considerably trabeculated inside floor. This helps within the differentiation from developmental cysts, which are sometimes unilocular. The cysts are relatively few in number (oligocystic), tend to be giant (macrocystic), and contain fluid of variable look, including clear, mucinous, gelatinous, sometimes hemorrhagic, or even purulent. The presence of large polypoid projections or strong masses in the cyst wall is suggestive of adenocarcinoma. The cysts are lined by a single layer of mucinous epithelial cells, and small papillary tufts may be current. In ladies, the cysts are essentially at all times associated with a cellular mesenchymal element resembling ovarian stroma. Densely hyalinized stroma usually separates the ovarian-like stroma from the adjacent liver. The cyst wall may also be focally lined by macrophages, calcification, or scar-like tissue. Dysplastic nuclear options corresponding to nuclear pleomorphism, lack of polarity, mitotic figures, and multilayering of the epithelium may be current with both low- and highgrade morphology and suggest increased threat for malignant transformation, however stromal invasion is important for the analysis of adenocarcinoma. Adenocarcinomas can invade the adjoining viscera and may sometimes spread to the regional lymph nodes, peritoneum, and lung. However, the big dimension, and the reported presence of optimistic p53 immunostaining and tetraploidy, elevate the potential for a premalignant lesion. Serous cystadenoma is rare within the liver and is just like its pancreatic counterpart, consisting of multiple microcysts lined by bland glycogen-rich cuboidal epithelium.

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Tumor unfold, locally throughout the mediastinum or more broadly after lymphovascular permeation, is often superior at presentation, and the overall prognosis is poor. About 10% of sufferers with esophageal squamous carcinoma, whether superior or superficial, have synchronous or metachronous squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharyngeal ring. Correlation between medical, endoscopic, radiologic, and histologic options is due to this fact notably essential in reaching the proper prognosis. Early (superficial) tumors are often pale plaque-like nodules that sometimes undergo floor erosion to give an appearance resembling esophagitis, or they could be nearly unrecognizable on gross examination. Well-differentiated verrucous squamous cell carcinomas are often giant, warty lesions. On the other hand, some poorly differentiated broadly infiltrative lesions can give rise to a diffuse, ill-defined thickening of the esophageal wall, harking again to gastric linitis plastica. Multicentric esophageal squamous cell carcinomas do happen rarely, however data about their incidence and pathogenesis are conflicting. Multicentricity may be as a end result of synchronous malignant transformation of several coexisting dysplastic lesions38 or to submucosal unfold from a single major tumor giving rise to satellite nodules. The tumor is inconspicuous in the fresh specimen however is highlighted by its relative lack of iodine staining. Am J Surg Pathol 13: 535-546) Microscopic Appearances Squamous cell carcinomas of the esophagus present a spread of differentiation from abundantly keratinized, welldifferentiated lesions. Sometimes, this spectrum of appearances may occur inside different areas of a single lesion. Occasionally, the squamous cell carcinoma is combined with a second, smaller element, of either adenocarcinoma41 or small cell carcinoma42 (see later discussion). Tumors in resection specimens often show invasion into, and infrequently through, the muscle coats with infiltration of the extramural mediastinal tissues to a variable degree; the extent of such local spread is a vital prognostic factor. The presence of a marked desmoplastic response or a pronounced lymphocytic response to the tumor,forty five each favorable prognostic indices,forty three at the advancing margin makes the macroscopic assessment of the extent of invasion troublesome, and histologic evaluation of the deep (circumferential) margin is important in assessing adequacy of excision. Other histologic indicators of aggressive habits embrace poor differentiation, tumor necrosis, and lymphatic or vascular invasion. The verrucous variant of squamous cell carcinoma37 is characterised by broad papillae of well-differentiated keratinizing squamous epithelium showing minimal cytologic atypia; these invade the underlying tissues over a broad entrance in the form of well-demarcated bulbous epithelial tongues. Am J Surg Pathol 13: 535-546) must be distinguished from one other less well-recognized variant, the so-called basaloid squamous cell carcinoma during which typical invasive and/or in situ squamous cell carcinoma is mixed with a "basaloid" element comprising strong, discrete nests or lobules of small, mitotically active cells with hyperchromatic nuclei. Some examples present marked stromal hyalinization, producing an appearance reminiscent of adenoid cystic carcinoma; certainly it has been instructed that many examples in the literature of esophageal adenoid cystic carcinomas which have demonstrated a a lot more aggressive behavior than their salivary gland counterparts are misdiagnosed basaloid squamous carcinomas. The major differential diagnosis in biopsy interpretation is from regenerating squamous epithelium on the margin of a benign ulcer, where growth of the basal proliferative zone and brisk mitotic activity might occur. The most helpful features pointing to benign reactive hyperplasia are floor maturation of the epithelial cells and a scarcity of nuclear pleomorphism or atypical mitoses. Particular issue might arise when these epithelial adjustments are accompanied by bizarre reactive stromal cells in affiliation with granulation tissue. Another supply of issue is the cytonuclear atypia of squamous epithelial cells that follows irradiation,14 misinterpretation of which can result in a false prognosis of recurrent malignancy after radiotherapy. In the case of verrucous carcinoma, unequivocal invasion is seldom demonstrable in superficial biopsies, and clinicopathologic correlation is commonly vital in reaching the right prognosis. The distinction between basaloid squamous cell carcinoma and adenoid cystic carcinoma is mentioned later. Spindle Cell (Sarcomatoid) Carcinoma (Synonyms: Polypoid Carcinoma, Carcinosarcoma, and Pseudosarcoma) Clinical Features It is now extensively accepted that spindle cell carcinoma, polypoid carcinoma, carcinosarcoma, and pseudosarcoma are synonyms for an unusual esophageal epithelial neoplasm with distinctive macroscopic and microscopic features. Macroscopic Appearances the tumors are virtually at all times cumbersome, polypoid, intraluminal esophageal growths, generally with a fairly slender pedicle. The sarcomatoid element usually consists of haphazardly arranged or interlacing bundles of mitotically energetic spindle cells, admixed with variable numbers of bizarre large cells and, sometimes, heterologous parts including neoplastic bone, cartilage, or striated muscle. Differential Diagnosis Problems may come up when a biopsy, or even a sample from a resection specimen, exhibits solely the spindle cell part of the tumor, when the main differential prognosis is polypoid leiomyosarcoma. Usually, a careful search for a carcinomatous component in further sections permits the right analysis to be made. In biopsies this implies further ranges from the tissue block; in a resection specimen, cautious sampling of the nonulcerated tumor floor, or of the adjoining background mucosa, is most probably to be fruitful, however, if this fails, examination of regional lymph nodes might determine metastases showing epithelial differentiation. Unequivocal immunopositivity for keratin in a spindle cell tumor, if present, would assist the diagnosis. The mixture of florid reactive epithelial adjustments and weird stromal cells in granulation tissue at the margin of benign esophageal erosions or ulcers (see earlier)54,fifty five might elevate the risk of spindle cell carcinoma at first sight, however correlation with the endoscopic appearances often allows the correct prognosis to be made.

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The lesion contains spindle cells and blood vessels in a sclerotic stroma infiltrated by lymphocytes and plasma cells. In between are sheets of enormous ovoid cells with eosinophilic cytoplasm and oval, twisted, or hyperchromatic nuclei, often with distinct nucleoli. The ovoid cells express myoid markers corresponding to clean muscle actin and musclespecific actin. False cysts (pseudocysts) probably arise through liquefaction of posttraumatic hematoma, cystic degeneration of hamartoma, infarction, or denudation of epithelial cysts. Epithelial cyst is normally solitary and has a coarsely trabeculated luminal surface on gross examination. The lining epithelium is of stratified squamous type; keratinization or mucinous metaplasia. The lesion varieties a discrete nodule with a homogeneous appearance, lacking the fragile streaks and tiny white pulp nodules of the conventional splenic parenchyma. B, the pulp cords and sinusoids are disorganized in contrast with the conventional purple pulp. The cyst has a fibrous wall and is lined by epithelial cells that are focally stratified. Burke J S 1981 Surgical pathology of the spleen: an approach to the differential prognosis of splenic lymphomas and leukemias. Burke J S, Osborne B M 1983 Localized reactive lymphoid hyperplasia of the spleen simulating malignant lymphoma. It characteristically happens within the subcapsular area and comprises cystic spaces lined by flat cells. Ahmann D L, Kiely J M, Harrison E G 1966 Malignant lymphoma of the spleen, a evaluate of 49 instances by which the prognosis was made at splenectomy. Demonstration of its histiocyte derivation by immunophenotypic and molecular genetic evaluation. A study primarily based on histology, cytology, immunohistochemistry, and cytogenetic evaluation. Blood ninety five: 1950-1956 Bennett M, Schechter G P 2010 Treatment of splenic marginal zone lymphoma: splenectomy versus rituximab. Hum Pathol 30: 1153-1160 Sherman M J, Hanson C A, Hoyer J D 2011 An evaluation of the usefulness of immunohistochemical stains within the analysis of bushy cell leukemia. Am J Clin Pathol 136: 390-399 Wu C D, Jackson C L, Medeiros L J 1996 Splenic marginal zone cell lymphoma. Hematol Oncol 23: 108-118 Ibbotson R E, Parker A E, Oscier D G 2005 Splenic marginal zone lymphoma: 7q abnormalities. Blood 88: 4265-4274 Chang K L, Arber D A 1998 Hepatosplenic gamma delta T-cell lymphoma-not just alphabet soup. Description of a case with immunophenotypic and molecular follow-up successfully treated with chemotherapy alone. Leukemia 11: 1367-1372 (letter) Shetty S, Mansoor A, Roland B 2006 Ring chromosome 7 with amplification of 7q sequences in a pediatric case of hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma. Virchows Arch 449: 479-483 Troussard X, Maloisel F, Flandrin G 1998 Hairy cell leukemia. Blood 115: 21-28 Robak T 2006 Current remedy options in furry cell leukemia and hairy cell leukemia variant. Cancer Treat Rev 32: 365-376 Naik R R, Saven A 2012 My therapy approach to hairy cell leukemia. Mayo Clin Proc 87: 67-76 Tallman M S, Polliack A 2009 Historical aspects and milestones in the development of efficient therapy for hairy cell leukemia. Leuk Lymphoma 50(Suppl 1): 2-7 Burke J S, Rappaport H 1984 the prognosis and differential diagnosis of bushy cell leukemia in bone marrow and spleen. Am J Clin Pathol 87: 276-281 Hanson C A, Ward P C, Schnitzer B 1989 A multilobular variant of bushy cell leukemia with morphologic similarities to T-cell lymphoma. Lancet 363: 1869-1870 Stetler-Stevenson M, Tembhare P R 2011 Diagnosis of hairy cell leukemia by flow cytometry. Johrens K, Stein H, Anagnostopoulos I 2007 T-bet transcription issue detection facilitates the diagnosis of minimal furry cell leukemia infiltrates in bone marrow trephines. Tetreault S A, Robbins B A, Saven A 1999 Treatment of furry cell leukemia-variant with cladribine. Matutes E 2006 Immunophenotyping and differential prognosis of bushy cell leukemia.

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However, at right, basal cells are outstanding (34E12), indicating radiation-induced changes in normal glands. Treatment Effect Radiation therapy for prostate cancers is the commonest cause of reactive atypia within the prostate. Cytologic atypia of nonneoplastic glands, together with enlarged and hyperchromatic nuclei with distinguished nucleoli. Other radiation-induced changes include a lower within the ratio of glands to stroma, atrophy, squamous metaplasia, basal cell hyperplasia, stromal fibrosis with atypical fibroblasts, foreignbody giant cells, intimal proliferation of arteries, and foam cells in vessel partitions. More cytologic atypia and stromal fibrosis are present in cases treated with interstitial radiotherapy (brachytherapy) or mixed interstitial and external beam radiotherapy than external beam radiation. However, no correlation between the sort of treatment and the impact on vessels has been discovered. With external beam radiation, less epithelial atypia is current in biopsy samples taken greater than 48 months after therapy in contrast with these with a shorter interval between biopsy and remedy. Radiation atypia in benign prostate glands may persist for a very long time after the initial treatment, leading to a significant pitfall in evaluating prostate biopsies, as a outcome of outstanding radiation impact could be detected for as much as seventy two months in sufferers treated with interstitial radiotherapy (brachytherapy). When cribriform buildings, fused glands, strong sheets, and cords are recognized, the analysis can usually be made with confidence. In needle biopsies, distinguishing small acini with atypia induced by radiation from microacinar carcinoma can be a diagnostic problem. An irregular distribution of acini in the stroma should enhance the suspicion of most cancers. Left, Two or three glands lined by hyperchromatic nuclei, and a number of other distorted small glands. Right, Absence of basal cells in the carcinomatous area, in distinction to basal cell�lined benign glands (upper) highlighted by high molecular weight cytokeratin. Prominent atrophic glands are characterised by the presence of low cuboidal and flattened cells (basal cells) with little cytoplasm and hyperchromatic nuclei (left). High molecular weight cytokeratin stain (34E12) highlights the presence of basal cells (right). The nuclear atypia associated with radiation can mimic that of carcinoma, though the spotty distribution of the atypia may be a clue to radiation atypia. It has been suggested that needle biopsy analysis is of little worth in the 12 months after radiation remedy due to the delayed manifestation of tumor cell death. The morphologic effects induced by estrogen compounds corresponding to diethylstilbestrol have been identified for more than 50 years. Squamous metaplasia may be current, and particular person tumor cells could show ample cytoplasm, nuclear pyknosis, and lack of nucleoli. Irregular "empty" spaces representing remnants of shrunken neoplastic glands could additionally be seen, similar to the modifications seen with androgen deprivation therapy. Recent research have analyzed the consequences of antiandrogen therapy, together with whole androgen blockade using medicine such as luteinizing hormone�releasing hormone agonists, flutamide, and cyproterone acetate. The effects of finasteride, a 5-reductase inhibitor generally used to treat hyperplastic and carcinomatous tissue, have recently been described. In radical prostatectomy specimens, the hormonal therapy results in a reduction in tumor volume, decreased incidence of constructive surgical margin, and an obvious downstaging effect, though the latter could additionally be spurious. In nonneoplastic areas, pronounced glandular atrophy happens, with shrinkage of the secretory cell compartment and basal cell prominence. Foci of basal cell hyperplasia are common, and squamous and transitional cell metaplasia may be seen. In many cases, prominence of collagenous stroma is seen, obscuring malignant glands. Stromal proliferation resulting in a hemangiopericytomalike look could additionally be seen. Paneth cell�like change is usually outstanding in treated carcinoma, and this correlates with increased numbers of neuroendocrine cells. The architectural adjustments associated with androgen deprivation remedy result in an obvious worsening of the Gleason score compared with the preoperative biopsy results. This change is likely spurious and related in great part to the cytoplasmic shrinkage and lack of lumina famous with the therapy. Note scattered benign glands on a background of distorted cords of hyperchromatic neoplastic cells.

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Kalisvaart J F, Katsumi H K, Ronningen L D, Hovey R M 2010 Bladder cancer in spinal cord damage sufferers. Ellsworth P I, Schned A R, Heaney J A, Snyder P M 1995 Surgical treatment of verrucous carcinoma of the bladder unassociated with bilharzial cystitis: case report and literature review. Boileau M, Hui K K, Cowan D F 1986 Invasive verrucous carcinoma of urinary bladder treated by irradiation. Cooper K, Haffajee Z, Taylor L 1997 Human papillomavirus and schistosomiasis related bladder cancer. Newman D M, Brown J R, Jay A C, Pontius E E 1968 Squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder. Thomas D G, Ward A M, Williams J L 1971 A examine of fifty two instances of adenocarcinoma of the bladder. Jacobo E, Loening S, Schmidt J D, Culp D A 1977 Primary adenocarcinoma of the bladder: a retrospective study of 20 sufferers. Anderstrom C, Johansson S L, von Schultz L 1983 Primary adenocarcinoma of the urinary bladder. Goyanna R, Emmett J L, McDonald J R 1951 Exstrophy of the bladder sophisticated by adenocarcinoma. Lane Z, Hansel D E, Epstein J I 2008 Immunohistochemical expression of prostatic antigens in adenocarcinoma and villous adenoma of the urinary bladder. Silver S A, Epstein J I 1993 Adenocarcinoma of the colon simulating primary urinary bladder neoplasia: a report of 9 instances. Tamboli P, Mohsin S K, Hailemariam S, Amin M B 2002 Colonic adenocarcinoma metastatic to the urinary tract versus major tumors of the urinary tract with glandular differentiation: a report of 7 cases and investigation using a limited immunohistochemical panel. Oliva E, Young R H 1995 Nephrogenic adenoma of the urinary tract: a review of the microscopic appearance of eighty instances with emphasis on unusual options. Gilcrease M Z, Delgado R, Vuitch F, Albores-Saavedra J 1998 Clear cell adenocarcinoma and nephrogenic adenoma of the urethra and urinary bladder: a histopathologic and immunohistochemical comparison. Oliva E, Young R H 1996 Clear cell adenocarcinoma of the urethra: a clinicopathologic evaluation of 19 circumstances. A clinicopathologic, morphometric, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural examine of 18 instances. Reyes C V, Soneru I 1985 Small cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder with hypercalcemia. Partanen S, Asikainen U 1985 Oat cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder with ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone production. Wang X, MacLennan G T, Lopez-Beltran A, Cheng L 2007 Small cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder-histogenesis, genetics, 12 Tumors of the Urinary Tract 653 221. Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol 15: 8-18 Alijo Serrano F, Sanchez-Mora N, Angel Arranz J et al. Am J Clin Pathol 128: 733-739 Buza N, Cohen P J, Pei H, Parkash V 2010 Inverse p16 and p63 expression in small cell carcinoma and high-grade urothelial cell carcinoma of the urinary bladder. Hum Pathol 36: 718-723 Wang W, Epstein J I 2008 Small cell carcinoma of the prostate. Mod Pathol 11: 1016-1020 Martignoni G, Eble J N 2003 Carcinoid tumors of the urinary bladder. Urology 55: 949 Anichkov N, Nikonov A, Veresh I 1979 Malignant carcinoid tumor of the bladder. Arkh Patol 41: 46-49 Chin N W, Marinescu A M, Fani K 1992 Composite adenocarcinoma and carcinoid tumor of urinary bladder. Urology forty: 249-252 Melicow M M 1955 Tumors of the urinary bladder: a clinicopathological analysis of over 2500 specimens and biopsies. Cancer 86: 498-504 Tavora F, Montgomery E, Epstein J I 2008 A series of vascular tumors and tumor-like lesions of the bladder. Am J Surg Pathol 32: 1213-1219 Bolkier M, Ginesin Y, Lichtig C, Levin D R 1983 Lymphangioma of bladder. Cancer 86: 505-513 Wang W, Montgomery E, Epstein J I 2008 Benign nerve sheath tumors on urinary bladder biopsy. Am J Surg Pathol 32: 907-912 Cummings J M, Wehry M A, Parra R O, Levy B K 1998 Schwannoma of the urinary bladder: a case report. Int J Urol 5: 496-497 Kindblom L G, Meis-Kindblom J M, Havel G, Busch C 1998 Benign epithelioid schwannoma. Kawamura J, Sakurai M, Tsukamoto K, Tochigi H 1993 Leiomyosarcoma of the bladder eighteen years after cyclophosphamide therapy for retinoblastoma.

Diseases

• Aortic arches defect
• Hypophosphatasia, infantile
• Fumaric aciduria
• Sitosterolemia
• Hypercholesterolemia due to arg3500 mutation of Apo B-100
• Esophageal neoplasm
• Stomach cancer, familial
• Ceramide trihexosidosis
• Xeroderma
• Blastomycosis

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Occasional sufferers have hormonally mediated symptoms such as irregular vaginal bleeding. Symptoms of hyperthyroidism happen in fewer than 10% of sufferers with struma ovarii, some of whom have concurrent enlargement of the thyroid gland. These seem best treated by hysterectomy and bilateral salpingooophorectomy, thyroidectomy, and administration of radioactive iodine. Struma ovarii is a circumscribed neoplasm that ranges in dimension from a small nodule, only one or 2 cm in diameter, to a big mass greater than 10 cm in diameter. On cross part, struma ovarii is purple, green, or tan with a glairy, meaty appearance. Small cysts are generally current, and occasional tumors are largely or completely cystic. Above that dimension, growing measurement correlates with an increased risk of malignancy; the typical diameter of malignant strumas is thirteen to 14 cm. Diffuse sheet of small round cells with hyperchromatic nuclei and scanty cytoplasm. This sort of monodermal teratoma consists predominantly of mature thyroid follicles. Most circumstances of malignant struma ovarii have been designated carcinoma on histologic grounds alone and by no means unfold beyond the ovary. Clinically malignant examples of struma ovarii that have metastasized are, however, nicely documented. Strumosis was a term used for a situation characterized by the discovering of peritoneal and omental implants of well-differentiated thyroid tissue in a patient with a histologically benign struma ovarii. It is now thought to characterize metastasis from a extremely differentiated follicular carcinoma arising in struma ovarii. Highly differentiated variants of papillary carcinoma additionally occur but are sometimes not acknowledged till extraovarian metastases turn into evident. Carcinoid Tumor Carcinoid tumors are uncommon ovarian neoplasms categorized as monodermal teratomas because many are associated with different teratomatous parts. One quarter to one third of girls with ovarian carcinoid tumors have carcinoid syndrome. Some girls with trabecular or strumal carcinoids develop extreme continual constipation, brought on by tumor secretion of the intestinal hormone tissue must be considered to be no much less than of unsure malignant potential. Struma ovarii is composed of follicles crammed with eosinophilic colloid and lined by cuboidal or columnar cells with uniform round nuclei. Degenerative changes similar to fibrosis, calcification, and aggregates of hemosiderin-laden macrophages could additionally be current. Cystic variants of struma ovarii might contain few follicles and may be troublesome to acknowledge. Luteinized ovarian stromal cells are present around some examples of struma ovarii. Follicular variants of papillary carcinoma have been described in struma ovarii, as within the thyroid. It is a hypercellular neoplasm during which the tumor cells develop in a microfollicular, trabecular, or strong pattern. It is tough to differentiate follicular carcinoma from proliferative struma ovarii, but nuclear atypia, frequent mitotic figures, and, particularly, an invasive growth pattern or vascular invasion favor follicular carcinoma. There is a benign cystic teratoma in the contralateral ovary in 10% to 15% of sufferers. The standard remedy is hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy, but unilateral salpingooophorectomy is sufficient treatment for a young girl. Symptoms normally abate rapidly as soon as the tumor is eliminated, though sufferers with carcinoid coronary heart illness can have progressive cardiac disease, regardless of the entire removal of the carcinoid tumor. Metastases and tumor-related deaths are rare, occurring primarily in sufferers with extraovarian spread at prognosis. Both the strumal and the carcinoid parts of strumal carcinoid appear capable of giving rise to metastases. Clues that a carcinoid may be metastatic embrace bilaterality, multinodularity, and the presence of peritoneal metastases. They range from microscopic to 8 to 10 cm in diameter and sometimes seem to come up within the wall of a benign cystic teratoma or a mucinous tumor. All ovarian carcinoids consist either fully or in a half of round or cuboidal neuroendocrine cells with uniform spherical or oval nuclei, coarse chromatin, and small nucleoli.

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Such tumors are designated mobile fibromas when nuclear atypia is gentle to moderate and 3 or fewer mitotic figures are seen per 10 hpf. The intercourse wire cells are polygonal and have uniform nuclei and small amounts of cytoplasm; they resemble indifferent intercourse twine cells or granulosa cells. Tumors that include them are referred to as fibromas or mobile fibromas with sex wire parts. The diagnosis must be thought of for a mobile spindle cell fibromatous neoplasm with average to marked nuclear atypia, four or more mitotic figures per 10 hpf, tumor cell necrosis, and atypical mitotic figures. The differential analysis contains leiomyosarcoma,559 a gastrointestinal stromal sarcoma,560 and varied forms of major or metastatic soft tissue sarcomas. Immunohistochemistry and Molecular Pathology Trisomy 12 is a consistent cytogenetic discovering in ovarian fibromas. Most are solid or predominantly strong with small cysts, however an occasional tumor is predominantly cystic. Microscopic Pathology Sclerosing stromal tumor has a variable look due to the juxtaposition of mobile nodules and zones of edema or hypocellular fibrous stroma. Blood vessels are outstanding and sometimes have a "staghorn" or "hemangiopericytoma-like" look. The tumor cells embrace spindle-shaped fibroblasts, myoid cells, and polygonal theca-like cells with vacuolated eosinophilic cytoplasm. There are two primary clinicopathologic classes, as follows: 698 Ovary, Fallopian Tube, and Broad and Round Ligaments 1. Well-differentiated Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors, which represent 10% of all such tumors 2. Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors of intermediate and poor differentiation, which make up the remaining 90% Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors happen mainly in younger women, but they occur over a wide age range and are detected occasionally in kids or postmenopausal women. Approximately 5% to 10% of sufferers have acute abdominal symptoms attributable to torsion or rupture of the tumor. A complete belly hysterectomy and bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy is appropriate remedy for older patients and may be considered in youthful girls in the setting of unfavorable prognostic findings, similar to rupture, extraovarian spread, a poorly differentiated neoplasm with frequent stromal cell mitoses, or heterologous mesenchymal differentiation (cartilage, skeletal muscle, foci of neuroblastoma). Well-formed tubules lined by Sertoli cells are surrounded by stroma containing plump Leydig cells with plentiful eosinophilic cytoplasm. Intermediate and poorly differentiated tumors are bigger, with a median diameter of 15 cm. Microscopic Pathology Hollow or closed tubules lined by columnar Sertoli cells are surrounded by fibrous stroma in well-differentiated Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors. In intermediate and poorly differentiated SertoliLeydig cell tumors, mature and immature Sertoli cells line well-formed tubules, ill-defined tubules, trabeculae, and cord-like arrangements paying homage to the embryonal intercourse cords. They are lined by low columnar to cuboidal cells with scanty cytoplasm and oval hyperchromatic nuclei. Mitotic figures are uncommon in Sertoli cells, but numerous mitotic figures are seen sometimes within the cells lining retiform tubules. The presence of immature Sertoli cells and stroma is the primary feature that distinguishes intermediate and poorly differentiated Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors from well-differentiated tumors. Stroma is most plentiful in poorly differentiated tumors, the place it constitutes the bulk of the tumor. The stromal cells are usually not strikingly atypical, however mitotic figures, which common 4 or 5 per 10 hpf, are easy to discover. Leydig cells, discovered singly or in small or medium-sized clusters, are present in most tumors. They are polygonal, with central round nuclei and abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm. Sheet-like pattern composed of pale Sertoli cells, darkly stained immature stromal cells, and, at the periphery, nests of Leydig cells with conspicuous eosinophilic cytoplasm. The gastrointestinal epithelium in heterologous tumors accommodates argyrophilic cells that stain for chromogranin, serotonin, and different peptides, and heterologous carcinoid components stain for chromogranin or synaptophysin. Typical options of Sertoli-Leydig cell tumor could be seen in the stroma between the enteric glands. Sertoli Cell Tumor Sertoli cell tumors are among the rarest sex cord�stromal tumors. Tumors with complex annular tubules have been categorised by some authors as Sertoli cell tumors with complex tubular patterns,601 whereas other authors classify these tumors separately as sex cord tumors with annular tubules.

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Pathol Int forty six: 450-456 Attaran S Y, Omrani G H, Tavangar S M 1996 Lymphoepitheliallike intrathyroidal thymic carcinoma with foci of squamous differentiation. Am J Clin Pathol 106: 483-486 Freeman C, Berg J W, Cutler S J 1972 Occurrence and prognosis of extranodal lymphomas. Cancer 29: 252-260 Anscombe A M, Wright D H 1985 Primary malignant lymphoma of the thyroid-a tumour of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue: review of seventy-six instances. Burke J S, Butler J J, Fuller L M 1977 Malignant lymphomas of the thyroid: a medical pathologic examine of 35 patients together with ultrastructural observations. Compagno J, Oertel J E 1980 Malignant lymphoma and different lymphoproliferative disorders of the thyroid gland. Devine R M, Edis A J, Banks P M 1981 Primary lymphoma of the thyroid: a review of the Mayo Clinic expertise through 1978. Coode P E, Shaikh M U 1988 Histiocytosis X of the thyroid masquerading as thyroid carcinoma. Verdi D, Pennelli G, Pelizzo M R, Toniato A 2011 Solitary fibrous tumor of the thyroid gland: a report of two instances with an evaluation of their scientific and pathological options. Chetty R, Clark S P, Dowling J P 1993 Leiomyosarcoma of the thyroid: immunohistochemical and ultrastructural research. Yamaguchi M, Ohno T, Kita K 1997 Gamma/delta T-cell lymphoma of the thyroid gland. Rawal A, Finn W G, Schnitzer B, Valdez R 2007 Site-specific morphologic variations in extranodal marginal zone B-cell lymphomas. Bateman A C, Wright D H 1993 Epitheliotropism in high-grade lymphomas of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue. Avila A, Villalpando A, Montoya G, Luna M A 2009 Clinical options and differential diagnoses of solitary extramedullary plasmacytoma of the thyroid: a case report. Wang T S, Ocal I T, Oxley K, Sosa J A 2008 Primary leiomyosarcoma of the thyroid gland. Report of a case with cytologic, histologic and immunohistochemical features and differential diagnostic considerations. Ferri E, Manconi R, Armato E, Ianniello F 2009 Primary paraganglioma of thyroid gland: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical examine with review of the literature. Bale G F 1950 Teratoma of the neck in the region of the thyroid gland, a review of the literature and report of 4 instances. Thompson L D, Rosai J, Heffess C S 2000 Primary thyroid teratomas: a clinicopathologic study of 30 cases. Kimler S C, Muth W F 1978 Primary malignant teratoma of the thyroid: case report and literature evaluate of cervical teratomas in adults. Bowker C M, Whittaker R S 1992 Malignant teratoma of the thyroid: case report and literature evaluate of thyroid teratoma in adults. Buckley N J, Burch W M, Leight G S 1986 Malignant teratoma in the thyroid gland of an adult: a case report and a review of the literature. Chen J S, Lai G M, Hsueh S 1998 Malignant thyroid teratoma of an adult: a long-term survival after chemotherapy. Lange M J 1974 Pleomorphic adenoma of the thyroid containing salivary gland cells with pseudocartilage and myoepithelial cells. Mahoney C P, Patterson S D, Ryan J 1995 Granular cell tumor of the thyroid gland in a lady receiving high-dose estrogen therapy. Baloch Z W, Martin S, Livolsi V A 2005 Granular cell tumor of the thyroid: a case report. Ghossein R A, Rosai J, Heffess C 1998 Dyshormonogenetic goiter: a clinicopathologic examine of 56 cases. Fadda G, Baloch Z W, LiVolsi V A 1999 Dyshormonogenetic goiter pathology, a evaluate. Oertel Y C, Oertel J E 1998 Diagnosis of malignant epithelial thyroid lesions: fantastic needle aspiration and histopathologic correlation. Baloch Z W, LiVolsi V A 2004 Fine-needle aspiration of thyroid nodules: previous, current, and future. Gibb G K, Pasieka J L 1995 Assessing the necessity for frozen sections: still a valuable tool in thyroid surgery.

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In present practice, any tumor by which granulosa cells comprise more than 10% of the mobile inhabitants is classed as a granulosa cell tumor. Spindle cell gonadal stromal tumors with only a minor granulosa cell element are greatest categorised as a thecoma or fibroma with minor sex cord elements. Most epithelial tumors are inhibinnegative, but focal or diffuse positive staining for inhibin is detected often. None of these stains is specific for granulosa cell tumor, as a result of most different forms of intercourse cord�stromal tumors show positive staining as nicely. These antibodies react with a nuclear antigen, so optimistic staining is within the tumor cell nuclei. Premenarcheal ladies typically (50%-75%) have isosexual precocious pseudopuberty,521 with growth of the breasts, development of pubic and axillary hair, vaginal bleeding, and increased bone age. Older kids and premenopausal ladies have menstrual abnormalities, including amenorrhea. A third to half of all sufferers present with nonspecific signs similar to stomach distention, ache, or a palpable abdominal mass. Occasional patients develop acute belly symptoms on account of torsion or rupture of their tumors. With uncommon exceptions, juvenile granulosa cell tumors are unilateral, and greater than 95% of them are confined to the ovary (stage I). There is an association between juvenile granulosa cell tumor and Ollier (enchondromatosis) and Mafucci (enchondromatosis and a number of hemangiomas) syndromes. Most tumors have a combined solid-cystic look, but some are completely solid and others largely cystic. Macrofollicular, stable, and cystic growth patterns are attribute of juvenile granulosa cell tumor. In some tumors, the macrofollicles are rounded and relatively uniform in dimension, whereas in others the follicles range markedly in dimension and have irregular shapes. The macrofollicles include mucinous material, are lined by one or more layers of granulosa cells, and may be surrounded by a rim of theca cells. Solid areas include sheets of granulosa cells with a variable admixture of spindle-shaped thecal or fibroblastic stromal cells. Vague or well-defined papillae lined by granulosa cells often develop into cystic spaces. The granulosa cells in juvenile granulosa cell tumors differ from those seen in grownup granulosa cell tumors. They are giant and polygonal to spindled in shape, with a variable, but often ample, amount of amphophilic or pink cytoplasm. Some cells have greatly enlarged pleomorphic nuclei and others are multinucleated. Irregular macrofollicles filled with eosinophilic secretions and surrounded by a diffuse proliferation of neoplastic granulosa cells. The immunohistochemical options of juvenile granulosa cell tumor are just like these of adult granulosa cell tumors, with a few variations. Premenopausal girls have both endocrine-associated signs, such as irregular bleeding or amenorrhea, or less particular complaints, corresponding to pelvic or stomach pain or stomach distention. Because many thecomas are associated with endometrial hyperplasia or carcinoma, hysterectomy with bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy is the usual remedy. Unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy is adequate remedy for a younger girl as lengthy as the endometrium is normal. Rare malignant tumors with unequivocal thecomatous differentiation have been reported. Gross Pathology Thecomas are firm or exhausting tumors that vary from small, by the way found nodules lower than 1 cm in diameter to plenty greater than 20 cm in diameter. The minimize floor is grey or tan, usually with focal to in depth yellow or golden areas.

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